Tag: rhetorical devices

1986: Reagan & the Challenger

ESSENTIAL QUESTION

How did President Reagan use language to encourage a mourning American public to focus on the future?

CONTEXT

The US Space Shuttle program (1981-2011) employed a partially reusable spacecraft for flights to conduct research while in orbit as well as to deploy scientific, military, and sometimes commercial payloads. The program was run by NASA, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and each shuttle included a crew as well as equipment. Five shuttles were built, and the Challenger was the second one constructed. The January 1986 mission was the 10th of the Challenger orbiter and the 25th of the Space Shuttle fleet. This mission was scheduled to deploy a communication satellite, to study Haley’s Comet, and to initiate the new “Teacher in Space” program. The shuttle launch was widely televised and seen in classrooms across the US. This photograph from the NASA Photograph Collection shows the shuttle prior to launch.

But the Challenger exploded and broke apart 73 seconds into its flight and fell 46,000 feet into the Atlantic Ocean. Seven astronauts, including a civilian classroom teacher, died. The Shuttle Program was grounded for 30 months while an official investigation progressed, resulting in significant changes. The Shuttle Program was retired in 2011.

Although President Ronald Reagan had been scheduled to deliver his State of the Union Address on January 28, 1986, he postponed it and instead addressed the nation about the Challenger disaster. This text is taken from his speech.

The Challenger exploded 73 seconds into flight.

TEXT

Ladies and gentlemen,… Today is a day for mourning and remembering… This is truly a national loss.

Nineteen years ago, almost to the day, we lost three astronauts in a terrible accident on the ground. But we’ve never lost an astronaut in flight; we’ve never had a tragedy like this. And perhaps we’ve forgotten the courage it took for the crew of the shuttle. But they, the Challenger Seven, were aware of the dangers, but overcame them and did their jobs brilliantly. We mourn seven heroes: Michael Smith, Dick Scobee, Judith Resnik, Ronald McNair, Ellison Onizuka, Gregory Jarvis, and Christa McAuliffe. We mourn their loss as a nation together.

For the families of the seven, we cannot bear, as you do, the full impact of this tragedy. But we feel the loss, and we’re thinking about you so very much. Your loved ones were daring and brave, and they had that special grace, that special spirit that says, “Give me a challenge, and I’ll meet it with joy.” They had a hunger to explore the universe and discover its truths. They wished to serve, and they did. They served all of us. We’ve grown used to wonders in this century. It’s hard to dazzle us. But for 25 years the United States space program has been doing just that. We’ve grown used to the idea of space, and perhaps we forget that we’ve only just begun. We’re still pioneers. They, the members of the Challenger crew, were pioneers.

And I want to say something to the schoolchildren of America who were watching the live coverage of the shuttle’s takeoff. I know it is hard to understand, but sometimes painful things like this happen. It’s all part of the process of exploration and discovery. It’s all part of taking a chance and expanding man’s horizons. The future doesn’t belong to the fainthearted; it belongs to the brave. The Challenger crew was pulling us into the future, and we’ll continue to follow them.

I’ve always had great faith in and respect for our space program, and what happened today does nothing to diminish it. We don’t hide our space program. We don’t keep secrets and cover things up. We do it all up front and in public. That’s the way freedom is, and we wouldn’t change it for a minute. We’ll continue our quest in space. There will be more shuttle flights and more shuttle crews and, yes, more volunteers, more civilians, more teachers in space. Nothing ends here; our hopes and our journeys continue…

The crew of the space shuttle Challenger honored us by the manner in which they lived their lives. We will never forget them, nor the last time we saw them, this morning, as they prepared for their journey and waved goodbye and “slipped the surly bonds of earth” to “touch the face of God.”

INQUIRY

What was Reagan’s tone in the beginning of the speech? How did Reagan set the tone of his speech in the first paragraph? Why was it important to set the tone early?
Reagan alluded to a previous space disaster on the ground (the Apollo I fire). Why? What is the effect of the mention of this January 1967 disaster?
In what way did Reagan distinguish the Challenger tragedy as different from previous disasters in the space program?
How did Reagan personalize the tragedy, enabling the American public to identify with the people they may not have known personally?
What is the effect of Reagan’s use of the word “courage”? of “challenge”?
Why did Reagan use the image of pioneers?
Reagan spoke directly to school children. What message was he trying to convey?
How did Reagan characterize the future of the space program?
By the end of the speech Reagan’s tone has shifted. How? How did he accomplish this shift?
In his last sentence Reagan quoted from the poem “High Flight” by John Gillespie Magee, Jr. Magee was a 19-year-old American who volunteered with the Royal Canadian Air Force in 1940, before the US had entered WWII. He was sent to the United Kingdom where he flew a Spitfire over hostile territory in Europe but was killed in a training exercise December 11, 1941. How do these quotes convey the imagery of flight? Why are they appropriate here, even though Magee never experienced space flight?

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/archives/speech/address-nation-explosion-space-shuttle-challenger

https://www.nasa.gov/challenger-sts-51l-accident

1863: Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address

ESSENTIAL QUESTION

How and why does President Abraham Lincoln tie the Battle of Gettysburg to the American Revolution?

CONTEXT

It was a short speech. Only 10 sentences. It was over so fast, photographers did not get a chance to capture an image of the President speaking at the site of the carnage–fifty thousand dead, wounded, or missing–that was the battle of Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1863). The battle was seen as a Union victory, and yet both the Confederate and Union generals-in-chief offered their resignations after the battle (neither of which was accepted). After a Commission was established to organize proper burials, it was felt that a dramatic oration, common at the time, was necessary, and the Commission’s choice was Edward Everett, a well-loved orator who had spoken at other battlefields, including Bunker Hill. Everett agreed to be the speaker at the dedication of this new national cemetery, and later federal officials, including President Lincoln, were invited to join the Commission’s program. But Everett would be the headliner–Lincoln’s short address would follow. After Everett’s two hour speech on November 19, 1863, in front of approximately 20,000 spectators, Lincoln rose and spoke for three minutes.

TEXT

Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.

Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation or any nation so conceived and so dedicated can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.

But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate–we cannot consecrate–we cannot hallow–this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here have consecrated it far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us, the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so noble advanced.

It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us–that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom; and that government of the people, but the people, fore the people shall not perish from the earth.

INQUIRY

Lincoln does not specifically mention specific military units, slavery, Gettysburg, or Pennsylvania. Why do you believe he focused more on generalities? What was the effect?
What is the difference between describing an event and interpreting an event?
What does Lincoln mean by “a new birth of freedom”?
An allusion is an expression designed to call something to mind without specifically saying it. In what ways does Lincoln allude to the American Revolution? What is the effect?
What is the tone (Lincoln’s attitude toward the subject) of this speech? How does Lincoln create that tone? What does he ask his audience to do?
What is the mood (the attitude Lincoln wishes to create in his audience) of this speech? How does Lincoln create that mood? In what ways are the tone and mood of this speech related?
To whom is Lincoln addressing the speech–the Union, the Confederacy, or both? Defend your answer.
How and why does Lincoln connect Gettysburg to the American Revolution?
Although Lincoln says that “the world will little note nor long remember what we say here…” and yet we do remember the words. Why do you believe these words have endured?
In what ways can the past influence our lives today?

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

Wills, Gary. Lincoln at Gettysburg The Words that Remade America. 1992. Copyright Literary Research, Inc.

1933: FDR and “Fear Itself”

ESSENTIAL QUESTION

In his First Inaugural Address, how did President Franklin Roosevelt use language to rally Americans to focus on a positive future rather than the bleak present reality?

CONTEXT

It was 1933 and America was in crisis, the most dangerous time, some said, since the American Revolution. In October, 1929, the US Stock Market crashed, bringing on the worse economic depression in American history. 25% of the workforce, one in four men, were unemployed at a time when there was no unemployment insurance of any kind. American productivity was only 1/3 of what it had been in early 1929. Many farmers lost their land and homes due to a drastic drop in prices. Factories shut down. Mines were abandoned. Banks closed. People were starving. Families split up to go elsewhere to look for work, but often there was no work to find. People looked to the federal government for help, but President Hoover’s policies did not address the problems of the nation.

Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882-1945) won the presidential election in 1932 and immediately set about not only changing the American mindset but also changing the American future. This excerpt is from his first Inaugural Address given on March 4, 1933, at the US Capitol.

TEXT

…This is preeminently the time to speak the truth, the whole truth, frankly and boldly. Nor need we shrink from honestly facing conditions in our country today. This great nation will endure as it has endured, will revive and will prosper. So first of all let me assert me firm belief that the only thing we have to fear is fear itself,–nameless, unreasoning, unjustified terror which paralyzes needed efforts to convert retreat into advance. In every dark hour of our national life a leadership of frankness and vigor has met with that understanding and support of the people themselves which is essential to victory. I am convinced that you will again give that support to leadership in these critical days…

…Happiness lies not in the mere possession of money; it lies in the joy of achievement, in the thrill of creative effort. The joy and moral stimulation of work no longer must be forgotten in the mad chase of evanescent profits. These dark days will be worth all they cost is if they teach us that our true destiny is not to be ministered unto but to minister to ourselves and to our fellowmen…Our greatest primary task is to put people to work…

,..If I read the temper of our people correctly we now realize as we have never realized before our interdependence on each other: that we cannot merely take but we must give as well: that if we are to go forward we must move as a trained and loyal army willing to sacrifice for the good of a common discipline, because without such discipline no progress is made, no leadership becomes effective…

INQUIRY

Why does FDR focus on speaking “the truth”? What does this imply about the behavior of the previous President’s administration?
What does “endure” mean? What is the effect of using this verb in this circumstance?
FDR uses the verbs, “endure”, “revive”, and “proper” in that order. How does this define his plans for his administration?
One of the most well-known quotations from this speech is “…the only thing we have to fear is fear itself…” What does that mean?
According to FDR, what is the effect of this fear? What might be the importance of FDR using the verb “paralyze”, considering that he had been disabled with polio since 1921 when he was 39 years old?
Describe the partnership between the government and the public that FDR is calling upon.
What will the role of work be in the days to come? Why is it important that people work rather than simply be given money or materials?
Identify at least three examples of contrasts in this excerpt. Explain the effects of each example.
FDR uses the image of a “trained and loyal army willing to sacrifice for the good of a common discipline.” What is the effect of this image?
Describe an example in your life that required hard work but from which you gained “the joy of achievement…[or] the thrill of creative effort”.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/froos1.asp

1910: TR “In the Arena”

ESSENTIAL QUESTION

Which is more important–honest, hard-won effort, or easy success?

CONTEXT

Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919) was the 26th US President, serving from 1901-1909. He became President upon the assassination of President William McKinley and later won a term on his own. Previously he served as the governor of New York and was a leader in the Republican Party.

Born in New York, TR, as he was often known, was a sickly child and worked hard to build himself up physically. He attended Harvard College, served in the Spanish-American War, and became an active naturalist, conservationist, author, statesman, and explorer. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906.

After returning from an 11-month African safari in 1910, he and his wife embarked on an extended tour of Europe. As a world-wide celebrity, he received many invitations while on the trip, including one to speak at the Sorbonne in Paris. This text is excerpted from his speech made there on April 23, 1910, entitled “Citizenship in a Republic.” It is often referred to as “The Man in the Arena” speech.

TEXT

…Let the man of learning, the man of lettered leisure, beware of that queer [strange] and cheap temptation to pose to himself and to others as a cynic, as the man who has outgrown emotions and beliefs, the man to whom good and evil are as one. The poorest way to face life is to face it with a sneer. There are many men who feel a kind of twisted pride in cynicism; there are many who confine themselves to criticism of the way others do what they themselves dare not even attempt. There is no more unhealthy being, no man less worthy of respect, than he who either really holds, or feigns to hold, an attitude of sneering disbelief toward all that is great and lofty, whether in achievement or in that noble effort which, even if it fails, comes second to achievement. A cynical habit of thought and speech, a readiness to criticize work which the critic himself never tries to perform, an intellectual aloofness which will not accept contact with life’s realities—all these are marks, not as the possessor would fain to think, of superiority, but of weakness. They mark the men unfit to bear their part painfully in the stern strife of living, who seek, in the affectation of contempt for the achievement of others, to hide from others and from themselves their own weakness. The role is easy; there is none easier, save only the role of the man who sneers alike at both criticism and performance.

It is not the critic who counts; not the man who points out how the strong man stumbles or where the doer of deeds could have done them better. The credit belongs to the man who is actually in the arena, whose face is marred by dust and sweat and blood; who strives valiantly; who errs, who comes short again and again, because there is no effort without error and shortcoming; but who does actually strive to do the deeds; who knows the great enthusiasms, the great devotions; who spends himself in a worthy cause; who at the best knows in the end the triumph of high achievement, and who at the worst, if he fails, at least fails while daring greatly, so that his place shall never be with those cold and timid souls who neither know victory nor defeat...

INQUIRY

In 1912, while giving a speech in an unsuccessful run for a third term as president, Roosevelt was shot in the chest in an assassination attempt from 12 feet away. The bullet passed through his steel eyeglass case and a 50-page handwritten copy of his speech, before it lodged in his chest muscle. Roosevelt proceeded to deliver a 90-minute speech with blood seeping into his shirt. Doctors later determined that the best course was to leave the bullet in his chest as it had not punctured his lung, and TR carried the bullet the rest of his life. He returned to the campaign trail two weeks later. How does this event provide an example of Roosevelt’s “man in the arena”?
In 1913, after losing the presidential election of 1912, Roosevelt left on an expedition to explore to its source the “River of Doubt” in the Brazilian Rainforest. While on the expedition Roosevelt suffered a leg wound which progressed into a life-threatening sickness. Roosevelt lost 50 pounds but survived the expedition. In what ways did this expedition provide an example of his “man in the arena” philosophy?
How does TR define a “cynic”?
According to TR, what are the signs of cynicism? Why should it be avoided?
How can one avoid the cynical attitudes TR describes?
How does TR describe the man in the arena? What images and verbs does he use? What are the effects of his word choice?
How does TR compare success and attempts?
Do you agree with TR’s ideas about success and honest effort? Why or why not? Give examples.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-the-sorbonne-paris-france-citizenship-republic

https://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Learn-About-TR/TR-Encyclopedia/Culture-and-Society/Man-in-the-Arena.aspx

The River of Doubt: Theodore Roosevelt’s Darkest Journey by Candice Millard (published 2006)

1588: Elizabeth I at Tilbury

ESSENTIAL QUESTION

In a time when women were considered the weaker sex and secondary citizens, how does Queen Elizabeth I of England convince her male troops to prepare for a foreign invasion?

CONTEXT

Queen of England during it’s Golden Age, Elizabeth I (1533-1603) was the second daughter of King Henry VIII. Never married, she was relatively tolerant in religious affairs and cautious in foreign affairs, successfully fending off multiple demands that she marry to produce an heir to the throne. She became known as the “Virgin Queen”, and her reign saw the rise of William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Francis Drake, and Sir Walter Raleigh, as well as the British defeat of the Spanish Armada, at the time considered the strongest navy afloat.

On July 12, 1588, a large Spanish fleet set sail for the English coast, intent upon invasion. English militia mustered to defend the southern coast, and the commander invited Elizabeth to inspect her troops. Wearing a white velvet gown under a breast plate with a steel helmet, she addressed her forces. Excerpts from her speech, made August 9, 1588, are below. Note how she uses language to convey her message.

TEXT

My Loving People

We have been persuaded by some that are careful of our safety to take heed how we commit ourselves to armed multitudes, for fear of treachery. But I assure you, I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people.

Let tyrants fear, I have always so behaved myself that, under God, I have placed my chiefest strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts and good-will of my subjects; and there fore I am come amongst you as you see, at this time, not for my recreation and disport, but being resolved, in the midst and heat of the battle, to live and die amongst you all; to lay down for my God, and for my kingdom, and my people, my honour and my blood, even in the dust.

I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any prince of Europe, should dare to invade the borders of my realm: to which rather than any dishonour shall grow by me, I myself will take up arms, I myself will be your general, judge, and rewarder to every one of your virtues in the field…

INQUIRY (Cite from the text where you found your response)

Most of the militia have probably never seen the Queen in person. How does she establish an emotional connection with them? What phrases does she use?
What does Elizabeth state is her purpose in addressing the troops? What connection is she making?
Why does Elizabeth contrast her body with her heart and stomach? What is the effect?
Why does Elizabeth infer back to her ancestors when she says “a King of England too”? What appeal is she making? (Remember, Elizabeth’s father was King Henry VIII and her grandfather King Henry VII)
What imagery does Elizabeth use to convey her commitment to England?
How does Elizabeth work to inspire commitment in the militia?
Identify at least one appeal to logic in the speech.
What is Elizabeth’s tone in this speech? Identify specific phrases that convey her tone.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/queen-elizabeth-speech-troops-tilbury