Tag: american-revolution

1783: Washington resigns

ESSENTIAL QUESTION:

Assess the short and long term significance of General George Washington’s resignation of his military commission.

CONTEXT:

George Washington (1732-1799) served as the Commander in Chief of the American Forces in the American Revolution and in 1789 became the first president of the United States. While fighting in the American Revolution ended mainly with the Battle of Yorktown (1781), the war itself only ended with the Treaty of Paris (1783). In that two year period, the American Army stayed organized, with Washington as its leader, as the threat of new fighting remained. As Commander in Chief Washington constantly petitioned Congress for pay and better conditions for the soldiers who had fought in the Revolution, but there was little money; money had to be requested by Congress of the individual states. Several mutinies occurred over unpaid wages, supplies, and expiring enlistments, including the Pennsylvania Line Mutiny (1781) and the Newburgh Conspiracy (1783). Washington was able to quell these uprisings and retain control of the Army.

Washington had been appointed Commander in Chief of the American Forces in May of 1775, and many thought he would remain in power throughout his life. But the Treaty of Paris (1783) had been signed three months earlier and Washington saw his job as a military commander completed. During the War he had been granted broad powers and many thought he would continue to use them. But he did not. Having bid farewell to his soldiers the month before, in December 1783 he bid farewell to his officers and two days before Christmas in 1783 he addressed the Continental Congress in Annapolis, Maryland, to resign his commission. He then traveled to his home at Mount Vernon, hoping to live out his days as a farmer. His quiet life did not last long; he was elected President of the United States six years later, serving from 1789 until 1797. Washington died at Mount Vernon in 1799.

TEXT:

The great events on which my resignation depended having at length taken place; I have now the honor of offering my sincere Congratulations to Congress and of presenting myself before them to surrender into their hands the trust committed to me, and to claim the indulgence of retiring from the Service of my Country...

I resign with satisfaction the Appointment I accepted with diffidence. A diffidence in my abilities to accomplish so arduous a task, which however was superseded by a confidence in the rectitude of our Cause, the support of the Supreme Power of the Union, and the patronage of Heaven…

While I repeat my obligations to the Army in general, I should do injustice to my own feelings not to acknowledge in this place the peculiar Services and distinguished merits of the Gentlemen who have been attached to my person during the War. It was impossible the choice of confidential Officers to compose my family should have been more fortunate. Permit me Sir, to recommend in particular those, who have continued in Service to the present moment, as worth of the favorable notice and patronage of Congress.

I consider it an indispensable duty to close this last solemn act of my Official life, by commending the Interests of our dearest Country to the protection of Almighty God, and those who have the superintendence of them, to his holy keeping.

Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the great theatre of Action; and bidding an Affectionate farewell to this August body under whose order I have so long acted, I here offer my Commission, and take my leave of all the employments of public life.

INQUIRY:

  1. Washington believed this would be his last act of public life, and he handed his commission and a copy of his remarks to Thomas Mifflin, the President of the Congress. He bowed to Congress and then left for Mount Vernon to be home for Christmas. What was the short term effect of Washington’s resignation?
  2. Many wanted Washington to remain in power as head of the Army and nation. Why would they want that?
  3. Washington said he accepted his commission with diffidence. What does that mean? What powers allowed him to overcome that diffidence? What does that say about Washington as a leader?
  4. How did Washington view his officers? What language did he use?
  5. What did Washington ask the Congress to provide for his officers?
  6. Investigate the Newburgh Conspiracy (1783). How might that have influenced Washington’s comments?
  7. Washington made several religious references. What does this say about his attitude regarding the success of the American Revolution?
  8. After Washington’s resignation the Continental Army essentially disbanded, leaving the colonies with no unified military force; eventually Congress took over the responsibilities of the Army. What dangers might the new United States have faced with no organized military force?
  9. When news of Washington voluntarily giving up political power to return to his farm spread across the nation and the world, people were astonished. How did this act represent what the American Revolution had been fought for?
  10. Today the US Constitution marks the President of the United States as the Commander in Chief of the Military. What fundamental principle of American democracy doe the placing of military power into the hands of a civilian (president) represent? How did Washington’s resignation establish this principle?

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES:

https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/resignation-of-military-commission

https://www.aoc.gov/explore-capitol-campus/art/general-george-washington-resigning-his-commission

https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-06-02-0319-0004

Washington: A Life by Ron Chernow (Penguin Books, 2011)

1570: Haudenosaunee Constitution

ESSENTIAL QUESTION:

How did early Native American culture reflect their values?

CONTEXT:

The Haudenosaunee were a group of Native Americans in what would become the New England colonies in America, and they were present well before colonial settlement. They are sometimes called the “Iroquois Confederacy,” but this was a name given to them by French fur trappers; the English called them the “League of Five Nations.” The Haudenosaunee were actually a language and cultural group, and from this grew the Haudenosaunee Confederacy, a political union. The Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, and Mohawk tribes were original members, and the Tuscarora joined the Confederacy in approximately 1722.

The Haudenosaunee Confederacy developed a Constitution which was oral, recorded on wampum belts, and may have dated to as early as 1190. Passed down through the generations, it was later written and translated into English in the 19th century. Known as “The Great Law of Peace,” the Constitution emphasized peace and unity among the nations, consensus decision making, established a legal system, and created delegates to form a Grand Council. This text is drawn from a translation.

The Haudenosaunee Confederacy still exists today.

TEXT:

…This is wisdom and justice of the part of the Great Spirit to create and raise chiefs, give and establish unchangable laws, rules and customs between the Five Nation Indians, viz the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas and Senecas and the other nations of Indians in North America. The object of these laws is to establish peace between the numerous nations of Indians, hostility will be done away with, for the preservation and protection of life, property and liberty…

And when the Five Nation Indians confederation chiefs assemble to hold a council, the council shall be duly opened and closed by the Onondaga chiefs, the Firekeepers. They will offer thanks to the Great Spirit that dwells in the heave above the source and ruler of our lives, and it is him that sends daily blessings upon us, our daily wants and daily health, and they will then declare the council open for the transaction of business, and give decisions of all that is done in the council…

INQUIRY:

  1. In the first sentence, what does the Great Spirit do?
  2. What is the purpose of these laws, rules and customs?
  3. How do the Nations open their Council? Why is that significant?
  4. For what do the Nations offer thanks? How does that characterize their relationship with the Great Spirit?
  5. How does the Haudenosaunee Constitution blend laws and values?
  6. Haudenosaunee means “people of the longhouse.” They not only lived in longhouses but also saw their culture as a connected people within a metaphorical longhouse, serving as an image of the connection of the tribes of the Confederacy. How does living close to each other encourage the principles of the Haudenosaunee?
  7. Historians debate the influence of the Haudenosaunee Constitution on the US Constitution. Certainly Benjamin Franklin was familiar with the principles of the Haudenosaunee Constitution; he invited representatives of the Iroquois Nations to the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania in 1744 and the Albany Congress in 1754 to help promote peace, equity and justice in the gathering of colonies. The US Senate, in 1987, formally recognized that the framers of the US Constitution admired the principles and practices of the Confederacy (yet the Constitution itself was based more upon Enlightenment principles of the time). What similarities do you see with this excerpt and the US Constitution?
  8. Investigate the Albany Congress and the Albany Plan of Union. What similarities do you see with the Haudenosaunee Constitution?
  9. During the American colonial period the Haudenosaunee developed political alliances with the French and the English, based on their own tribal benefits. Yet during the American Revolution the Confederacy fractured, with some tribes siding with the English and some with the Americans. How did this violate one of their core principles?
  10. Many historians recognize the Haudenosaunee Confederacy as the world oldest democracy. Do you agree? Why or why not?

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES:

haudenosauneeconfederacy.com

https://web.pdx.edu/~caskeym/iroquois_web/html/greatlaw.html

1791: Franklin’s Virtues

ESSENTIAL QUESTION

What qualities did Benjamin Franklin consider to be important in developing himself as a young man?

CONTEXT

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) was one of the best known founding fathers. He was a writer, scientist, diplomat, publisher, inventor, and a leading intellectual of the late 18th century. He helped draft the American Declaration of Independence and was the first president of what would become the University of Pennsylvania. His life and legacy in the founding of the United States is reflected in the fact that his image is still on the $100 bill. From a poor family, Franklin built his publishing business from nothing but was always interested in ways to improve himself and the world around him.

As a young man wanting to make his way in the world, Franklin took a hard look at his own behaviors and thought of ways to improve himself. In 1726, at about the age of 20, Franklin wrote his 13 Virtues, listed below as taken from Franklin’s Autobiography. He decided that he would not try to change everything at once–that was overwhelming–but he would work on one virtue for a week and then move on to the next one.

As you read his list of virtues, consider the different areas of his life that Franklin was attempting to discipline. Where appropriate, clarification of terms are included in brackets.

TEXT

Franklin’s 13 Virtues

  1. Temperance: Eat not to dullness [being too full]. Drink not to elevation [being drunk].
  2. Silence: Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself. Avoid trifling conversation [gossip].
  3. Order: Let all your things have their places. Let each part of your business have its time.
  4. Resolution: Resolve to perform [Determine to accomplish] what you ought [should]. Perform without fail what you resolve.
  5. Frugality: Make no expense but to do good to others or yourself: i.e. waste nothing.
  6. Industry: Lose no time. Be always employed in [busy with] something useful. Cut off all unnecessary actions.
  7. Sincerity: Use no hurtful deceit. Think innocently and justly; and, if you speak, speak accordingly.
  8. Justice: Wrong none, by doing injuries or omitting the benefits that are your duty.
  9. Moderation: Avoid extremes. Forbear [politely do not] resenting injuries so much as you think they deserve.
  10. Cleanliness: Tolerate no uncleanliness in body, clothes or habitation [living area].
  11. Tranquility: Be not disturbed at trifles [unimportant things], or at accidents common or unavoidable.
  12. Chastity: Rarely use venery [sexual indulgence] but for health or offspring; never to dullness, weakness or the injury of your own or another’s peace or reputation.
  13. Humility: Imitate Jesus and Socrates.

INQUIRY

  1. Looking at the list of virtues, classify the virtues in three or four groups of virtues. Justify your answer.
  2. Franklin intended to list the virtues in a specific order so that each virtue could support the development of the next one on the list; for instance, temperance could help support the virtue of silence. Do you agree with his order? Do you see ones that might be reordered? Justify your answer.
  3. Was it wise for Franklin to attempt to master a new virtue each week? Why or why not?
  4. Which three virtues do you consider most important for Franklin as a young man in 1726? Why?
  5. Franklin added the 13th virtue later because a friend told him he had a problem with self-pride. What does it say about Franklin that he was willing to amend his list?
  6. In what ways do each virtue relate to self-discipline?
  7. Which three virtues would you consider most important for yourself? Why?
  8. Write your own list of 13 virtues. Chart your progress over 13 weeks. What conclusions can you draw from the experience?

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

https://www.fi.edu/en/science-and-education/benjamin-franklin

https://www.pbs.org/kenburns/benjamin-franklin/

https://www.gutenberg.org/files/20203/20203-h/20203-h.htm 

https://guides.loc.gov/finding-benjamin-franklin

1776: A Feminine Rebellion

ESSENTIAL QUESTION

What political advice does Abigail Adams give her husband John in 1776?

CONTEXT

Abigail Smith Adams (1744-1818) was born in Weymouth, Massachusetts, to a liberal Congregationalist minister and his wife. Although the family held up to four slaves, Abigail later developed anti-slavery views. Even though she had no formal education, she learned to read, write, and cipher and enjoyed access to her father’s large library. In 1764 she married John Adams, a young lawyer from Braintree, Massachusetts. As the political atmosphere of Boston became more unsettled in the 1770s, Abigail remained at the farm in Braintree while husband John tended to his law practice and political duties in Boston. John became the second President of the United States and Abigail’s son John Quincy became the sixth President of the United States. She died in her home in 1818 of typhoid fever.

Due to John’s active political career Abigail and John spent months apart, but wrote over 300 letters to each other. This text is taken from a letter Abigail wrote to John on March 31, 1776, just prior to the announcement of the Declaration of Independence.

TEXT* (original spellings are maintained)

Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of the Husbands. Remember all Men would be tyrants if they could. If perticuliar care and attention is not paid to the Laidies we are determined to foment a Rebelion, and will not hold ourselves bound by any Laws in which we have no voice, or Representation.

That your Sex are Naturally Tyrannical is a Truth so thoroughly established as to admit of no dispute, but such of you as wish to be happy willingly give up the harsh title of Master for the more tender and endearing one of Friend. Why then, not put it out of the power of the vicious and the Lawless to use us with cruelty and indignity with impunity. Men of Sense in all Ages abhor those customs which treat us only as the vassals of your Sex. Regard us then as Beings placed by providence under your protection and in immitation of the Supreem Being make use of that power only for our happiness.

INQUIRY (Cite from the text where you found your responses)

  1. Abigail Adams uses strong language to describe men. When she says “Remember all Men would be tyrants if they could”, what does she mean? What keeps all men from being tyrants?
  2. While John Adams did not take the advice in this letter seriously, what does the fact that his wife describes her thoughts so plainly imply about their relationship?
  3. What does she mean by “use us with cruelty and indignity with impunity”?
  4. What does Abigail says that women will do if “perticuliar care and attention is not paid to the Laidies”?
  5. According to Abigail, how can men prevent a revolution by women?
  6. How does Abigail contrast “Men of Sense” and tyrants? What is the effect of this contrast?
  7. Would Abigail’s speech be relevant in our lives today? Why or why not?

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

*Text from “Abigail Adams to John Adams, 31 March 1776,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/04-01-02-0241. [Original source: The Adams Papers, Adams Family Correspondence, vol. 1, December 1761 – May 1776, ed. Lyman H. Butterfield. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963, pp. 369–371.]

https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/abigail-adams

https://www.masshist.org/digitaladams/archive/letter

1776: Paine’s Crisis

1776: Paine’s Crisis

ESSENTIAL QUESTION

Which rhetorical devices does Thomas Paine use to rouse American morale in the face of military defeat?

CONTEXT

On December 19, 1776, Thomas Paine (1739-1809) published The American Crisis, a pamphlet sold on the street of Boston opposite the Court House. This was the first of a 13-part pamphlet series he published between 1776 and 1783.

1776 had been a difficult year for the American Army. After the announcement of the Declaration of Independence in July, August brought military defeats and the British captured New York City. Over 60% of Washington’s troops had left the Army, been killed or captured, and enlistments for many of those who remained were due to expire in just 13 days, on December 31. Morale was low and it appeared the Army might evaporate.

Thomas Paine was well-known for his literary support of the American Revolution. He had written another pamphlet, Common Sense, in January, 1776; it sold over 100,000 copies in the first three months, and it helped explain the necessity of the American Revolution. Now, as the American troops retreated from New York City, Paine, who was with the Army, again began to write. He penned The American Crisis to stir American patriotism and improve morale, and General Washington ordered this new pamphlet to be read to all his men. Drawing courage from Paine’s words, the Continental Troops crossed the Delaware River and defeated Hessian troops at Trenton on Christmas night. This victory helped breathe new life into the American cause.

This excerpt is from the introduction to The American Crisis.

TEXT

THESE are the times that try men’s souls: The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of his country but he that stands it NOW, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman. Tyranny, like hell, is not easily conquered; yet we have this consolation with us, that the harder the conflict, the more glorious the triumph. What we obtain too cheap, we esteem too lightly;-‘Tis dearness only that gives everything its value. Heaven knows how to set a proper price upon its goods; and it would be strange indeed, if so celestial an article as Freedom should not be highly rated...

INQUIRY

  1. How does Paine construct his opening sentence as an appeal to ethos?
  2. Identify three examples of consonance (repetition of consonant sounds) in the first sentence. What is the effect of using this device, both when reading the pamphlet and when hearing it read in public?
  3. Identify the antithesis in the second sentence. What is the effect of this comparison?
  4. According to Paine, what gives things value? Do you agree? Why or why not?
  5. What does Paine consider to be a highly rated article? How do you know?
  6. Paine speaks of both heaven and hell in this section. What type of appeal is this? What is the effect?
  7. What imagery does Paine use in this excerpt? Cite at least three examples and give the effect of each.
  8. Which do you think is the most important sentence in this excerpt? Why?
  9. Do you agree with Paine’s reasoning? Why or why not?
  10. With this pamphlet and the American victory that followed, momentum in the American Revolution shifted toward the Americans. What is the importance of momentum in any type of contest, for instance a sports game? Give examples.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

https://www.loc.gov/resource/rbpe.03902300/?st=text

https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/how-thomas-paines-other-pamphlet-saved-the-revolution